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The Saqifa meeting held shortly after Muhammad's death in 632 was pivotal for Ali's status in Islamic leadership. There, some of the Ansar, or Medinan helpers, preferentially appointed Abu Bakr as the first caliph, sidelining Ali and his family from the decision-making process. Although Ali's claims were favorably discussed, he was absent from this crucial gathering due to preparation for Muhammad's burial. The result of Saqifa highlighted the growing factionalism within the early Islamic community and established a precedent that would culminate in ongoing disputes about legitimate leadership, which ultimately affected the unity and governance of the nascent Muslim state.

During his caliphate, Ali was distinct in his administrative and fiscal policies, which were marked by strict justice and a commitment to egalitarianism. Unlike his predecessors, who often employed favoritism and political expediency, Ali emphasized equity in the distribution of state resources. He dismissed many of Uthman's governors and distributed revenues more evenly among the Muslim populace, adhering closely to the practices of Muhammad. This led to both acclaim and resentment; while it won him support from the underprivileged, it also antagonized factions of the established elite who felt their interests were being jeopardized. His policies exemplified a commitment to the principles of justice and community welfare, a stark contrast to the neoliberal approaches seen under the previous caliphs.

Ali was involved in several significant battles during the early Islamic period, which greatly impacted the trajectory of the Islamic state. Among these, the Battle of Badr (624) solidified Ali's reputation as a fierce warrior and key supporter of Muhammad, while the Battle of Uhud (625) tested his valor in the face of overwhelming odds. The Battle of the Camel (656) marked a critical conflict against discontented former companions of Muhammad, such as Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr. This battle not only highlighted divisions within the Muslim community but also underscored Ali's struggle for authority. Subsequently, in the Battle of Siffin (657), Ali faced Mu'awiya, the governor of Syria, resulting in political fragmentation and the eventual rise of the Umayyad dynasty. These battles not only defined Ali's military legacy but also underscored the growing political strife that characterized the early caliphate.

Ali's assassination in 661 was the culmination of escalating tensions within the Islamic community, particularly with the Kharijites, who were once his followers but grew discontent due to his decisions during the civil strife. He was fatally wounded by Ibn Muljam, a Kharijite dissident, during prayers at the Great Mosque of Kufa. His death exacerbated the political turmoil and led to the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate. Regarding his burial, historical accounts are conflicting, with some claiming he is buried at the Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, Iraq, while others cite locations in Mazar-i Sharif, Afghanistan, and even Baghdad and Damascus. This ambiguity in burial sites reflects the broader historical disputes and sectarian divisions that have followed in the wake of his assassination.

Ali made a profound impact on Islamic thought and scholarship, particularly in the realms of Quranic interpretation and ethics. He is acknowledged as one of the first to compile the Quran and is credited with numerous hadiths and interpretations related to Islamic law. His works, such as Nahj al-Balagha, have been critical in shaping Shia theology and philosophy, often delving into ethics, governance, and spirituality. Moreover, his teachings on justice and equality resonate deeply in Islamic jurisprudence. Today, Ali's legacy is seen as foundational within Islamic sciences, influencing scholars and theologians across both Sunni and Shia traditions.

Ali ibn Abi Talib was born around 600 CE in Mecca, to Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Fatima bint Asad. He was a member of the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe. Notably, Ali was raised by his cousin Muhammad after the death of his parents, and he was among the first to accept Islam. His birth is also celebrated by Shia Muslims on the 13th of Rajab, with some traditions suggesting he was born within the Kaaba, making him a unique figure in Islamic history. His close familial ties to the Prophet Muhammad place him in significant historical context, providing him with a prominent role in early Islamic society. Sources indicate that he played a vital role in supporting the nascent Muslim community during its early struggles against persecution in Mecca.

Ali's close relationship with Prophet Muhammad was marked by loyalty and service. He was the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law, having married Muhammad’s daughter Fatima. Ali stayed behind in Mecca as Muhammad's decoy during the Hijrah to Medina, which showcased his bravery and dedication. Throughout Muhammad's life, Ali served as his secretary, and he was notably the standard-bearer during key battles. In a significant event at Ghadir Khumm, Muhammad declared Ali as his 'mawla' (friend, ally, or leader), which has been interpreted diversely; for Shia Muslims, it signifies Ali's divinely ordained leadership role. This close association not only established Ali's prominence among early Muslims but also provided a basis for his later claims to the caliphate and his significance as the first Shia imam. The events of Ali’s early interactions with Muhammad left a lasting legacy on the Islamic community.

Ali's reign as the fourth caliph, from 656 to 661 CE, was characterized by turmoil and civil strife known as the First Fitna. Following Uthman’s assassination, Ali faced immediate challenges, including two significant rebellions aimed at avenging Uthman's death. The first rebellion led to the Battle of the Camel in 656, where Ali faced Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr. Ali won this battle but it set a precedent for further conflicts within the Muslim community. Another major confrontation occurred at the Battle of Siffin against Mu’awiya, the governor of Syria, which ended inconclusively and led to a highly contested arbitration, further splintering his support. Ali's attempts at implementing reforms and rooting out corruption were met with resistance, and his rivals like Muawiya capitalized on public dissent against his administration. Ultimately, Ali's leadership and reforms underscore the ongoing struggles for authority within the emerging Islamic state.

Ali is often praised for his virtues such as bravery, justice, and piety. He is depicted as a paragon of Islamic morality, known for his equitable treatment of all individuals, regardless of their status. Early Islamic literature, particularly Shia sources, emphasize his role as a compassionate leader and protector of the oppressed. His commitment to justice often put him at odds with more politically expedient figures, which some critics labeled as inflexibility. Significant stories about his character include his refusal to take vengeance on his enemies even after victory, showcasing his values of forgiveness and compassion. These portrayed qualities have made him a revered figure in both Sunni and Shia traditions, with his ethical teachings continuing to resonate throughout Islamic thought.

Ali's legacy holds immense significance in Islamic history, particularly within Shia Islam, where he is viewed as the first imam and rightful successor to Muhammad. His leadership is foundational to Shia belief, with key events like the Ghadir Khumm being pivotal in establishing his authority. In contrast, Sunni Islam regards him as one of the truly rightly-guided caliphs but places him under Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman. Despite the differences, both sects recognize his unparalleled contributions to Islamic jurisprudence and governance. Works attributed to Ali, such as Nahj al-Balagha, serve as critical sources for understanding Islamic ethics and politics. He symbolizes integrity and justice and serves as a role model for millions of Muslims today, which has established him as a central figure in Islamic culture, religion, and moral philosophy.